History and Principles of Education Essay Example for Free

History and Principles of Education Essay The principles which should control educational methods are to be sought in human nature. During a considerable period of early man life, life is helpless and ignorant and without strength and knowledge necessary it is difficult to maintain an independent existence (Painter, 1904). Therefore it is in this fact that renders education a necessity. Function of Education The function of education is to give the processes of physical and mental growth which assist and direct a person during the formative periods of childhood and youth. The end of education is complete human development which is attained by leading the several parts of man’s nature to a harmonious realization of their highest possibilities (Davidson, 1990). Aim of Education Education aims at developing a noble type of manhood and man has various duties to perform in the world which need special training and a wide range of knowledge. Education also aims to develop its subjects for their place in the established order of things. Its object is to impress upon each generation traditional ideas and customs and hence prepare it to take its place, in the established order of society. Elements of Education The two elements of education which are inseparable are development and acquisition of knowledge. Without development the individual lacks strength to grapple with the problem of life and without knowledge the person remains a cipher in society. (Painter, 1904) History of Education For the purpose of education villages in the ancient times had their schools, districts their academics, departments their colleges and principalities their universities. The wealthy in China made education respectable and popular as it opened the only road to political ambition as all officers of government had to study and pass examinations. The ancient classical nations, Greece and Rome are earliest representatives of European civilization as they contributed to Christianity and modern science and invention. Modern nation achievement and importance now demand recognition. Science has developed and made contribution to modern progress and commerce and invention has largely broken down narrow national prejudice. The history of education has left people with complete records of thoughts and achievements which have been incorporated in education. In education they mark an obvious advance upon the defective systems of the orient (Anthony Benson, 2003). In Greece, in the history of education two cities, that is, Sparta and Athens used records to complete a system of education which was developed. During this heroic age of Troy education possessed a single character which was patriarchial. The fathers trained the sons to physical strength and the mother trained the daughter on household duties and domestic virtues. Greece had a supply of luxuries for the market place and along with their wares; merchants also provided abundance of stories about customs and local traditions which formed part of education. Cultural patterns from distant lands were accepted and assimilated into their own as Greek civilization sought to assimilate the best from foreign lands and accepted views of people even if they were differing. The Greek knew literature, art, poetry, drama, music, rhetoric which was included in education (Anthony Benson, 2003). Education from the Reformation to the Present Time The reformation of the 16th century is the greatest event of education in modern history. It opened the literacy content of Greece and Rome which provided a new culture of education. The costly method of copying books by hand increased the sources of knowledge and brought it within reach to a lot of people who are readers. The Roman education was dominated by the family in the 753-272 B. C. and the father held the role of supreme authority. The family was the unit of the roman constitution, the custodian of ancestral tradition and the focal point of religious and educational activities. Cicero, one of the men in Rome, held Greek literary and philosophical education which he thought was useful and necessary in the basic educational curriculum of every roman citizen for them to be a contributing member of society. This way many roman citizen understood both classic Greek and Latin as well as Christian education hence it was a fine blend of both education systems ( Rowman Littlefield, 1976) Christian education led to increase in schools like county schools, town schools, Latin schools and university in protestant countries due to religion. The relation of Christianity to education came about when education of paganism was thought imperfect as it was controlled by the wrong principles and did not look at the worth of individual in all its fullness. Christian education is indebted to the Old Testament people which provided on how to live in a rightful way (Graves, 1915). After Jews returned from exile they established schools for the education of their children. In the early Sumerian civilization the Sumer’s achievement were the development of the system of writing and the formal system of education. The subjects of instructors were originally catechism and singing but reading, writing and arithmetic’s were added later. The 18th century witnessed a new movement which was characterised by human education which based its educational principles on nature only. Here education was important as in the mind of the enlightened philosophers it prepared people to live according to the principles of nature which used scientific methods. Education in 19th Century The field of knowledge had widened and was within reach by 19th century. Pestalozzi is an educational reformer since the reformation who did much to popularise education by devoting his life in the educational world. He was distinguished for learning and became the medium through which all that was best educational theory obtained permanent recognition. Principles of Education The principles of education intend to provide a foundation on how to develop and teach courses which should have long impacts on individual lives, as teaching and learning is the reason of a learning institution. These principles will guide the learning institution into the future. The learning institution should maintain a learning environment that values the process of learning as much as the knowledge taught. This environment should encourage independent thinking and divergent activities which inspires students and elevate them. The learners should be inspired to develop independent, interdependent life long learning strategies, nurture their aspirations, imagination and confidence and possess self determination with a realistic assessment of ones attitude and inclinations. Education should promote effective expression in many forms for making public meaning and personal skills for individuals to be able to communicate with others effectively. Education should increase knowledge and thinking of an individual to be able to think critically and conduct discipline inquiry in order to understand complexity and simplicity of ideas and to prioritise and make decisions. Reform and education innovation most be addressed in the context of universal principles of human nature as the goal of education is success. Curriculum of education should be vigorous with standards alighted and necessary resources, professional teachers and maintain the assessment and accountability system to be effective. Opinion Education is a vital part in human development and it is important in our day lives. The principles of education have to be followed for there to be effective learning. The learning institutions should hire staffs that have the relevant skills for knowledge to be administered fully. Education has evolved through many centuries through the Roman, Greek and Christianity ages. An individual who has educations should be able to solve problems because that person has analytical skills and problem solving skills which are acquired through education. Education is still evolving as new ways of learning are being discovered and the introduction of technology has made it easy for people to learn through programs which facilitate e-learning hence education is a continuous process. Reference Christian Education; Principles for The Twenty-First Century, Kregel Publication, ISBN 0825420237. Frank Pierrepont Graves, (1915) A Student’s history of Education, Macmillan Co. Francosco Cordasco, (1976) A Brief History of Education; A handbook of Information on Greek, Roman, Medieral, Renaissance, Rowman and Littlefield, ISBN 0822600676. Franklin Verzelius Newton Painter, (1904) A History of Education, D. Appleton and company. Michael J. Anthony and Warren S. Benson, (200) Exploring the history and Philosophy of Thomas Davidson, (1900) A History of Education, Constable.

Locker Room Talk Essay Example for Free

Locker Room Talk Essay Page 1 Locker Room Talk Ethical Case April 18, 2010 Page 2 The Locker Room Talk Ethical Case outlines a situation that is an ethical dilemma for CPA Albert Gable who has performed personal financial planning for Larry and Susan Wilson. The Wilson’s, in their discussions with Mr. Gable regarding their personal finances, mentioned that in the past they have had marriage problems but have worked through the problems and are not seeking a divorce. Gable and the Wilson’s became personal friends due to the relationship built during their personal financial planning. Mr. Gable also performs the annual audit for one of the largest banks in the town where they all live. The sample pulled for the audit at the bank included the Wilson’s loan information. While performing the audit, Mr. Gable discovers information on the Wilson’s loan that does not coincide with the information given to him during the personal financial planning. Mr. Gable is concerned and addresses the discrepancy with a loan officer but did not confide to the loan officer that he was also their personal financial planner. The loan officer confided in Mr. Gable that Mr. Wilson was setting up his business to divorce his wife without any compensation. This situation puts Albert Gable in a situation with a conflict of interests. His personal financial client is also a client of the bank where he performs the annual audit. The information the Wilson’s provided to him during their personal financial planning conflicts with the information provided on loan documentation at the bank. Albert Gable needs to determine the best course of action to take in this situation. The Stakeholders The stakeholders involved are: Page 3 1. Albert Gable As the CPA, his professional business ethics are at risk and his personal reputation is on the line. He also has a large bonus weighing on his decision. 2. Mrs. Wilson – She has the understanding that her marriage is not at risk and the financial planning is for the benefit of her and her husband for their future. 3. Mr. Wilson – If he is not being honest with his wife and is planning on divorcing her, the information that Albert has uncovered during the audit could create problems for him. . The loan officer – the loan officer that shared Mr. Wilson’s personal information with Mr. Gable. 5. The bank – the relationship Mr. Gable had with the Wilson’s as personal financial planner was not disclosed to the bank and is a conflict of interest. Course of Action The best course of action that Mr. Gable should take is to meet with the Wilson’s and explain that he cannot continue with thei r personal financial planning. He should have them seek out another financial planning firm to complete their personal financial plans. He should explain to them that he completes the annual audit for the bank and during the audit he discovered discrepancies with the loan information and the bank statements provided to him to prepare their personal finances and due to the discrepancies he feels it is necessary to remove himself as their personal planner. By removing himself as the Wilson’s personal financial planner, this eliminates the conflict of interest with the bank audit. By informing the Wilson’s they need to locate another Page 4 irm and cannot use the CPA firm he is partner with for financial planning removes all conflict business and personal and maintains business and personal ethics. Furthermore, he needs to notify the bank of the conflict with the Wilson account and that he will not be able to conduct an audit of their accounts due the relationship that was initially formed with the personal finance planning. By following the above steps he protects the clients, the bank and upholds his pro fessionalism and his business ethics. Impact to Stakeholder The deontology approach was used to determine the course of action. This approach to ethics emphasizes doing what one should do in accordance with rules, obligations and/or ethical principles of the profession. The impact of the decision could cost Mr. Gable the banks account but if he would have acknowledge upfront his knowledge of the Wilsons prior to beginning the audit on their loan documents the situation could have been diverted. He is also losing a client, the Wilson’s due to the bank audit and the review he completed of their loan documents. If he would have acknowledged to the bank and had the file removed from the audit all of this could have been avoided. Mr. Gable will need to take the time and explain to his client the Wilson’s but he needs to keep it at a professional level and not discuss what was discovered only that it is conflict of interest. Conclusion Mr. Gable used poor judgment in his decision making process and has violated the ethic rules of the accounting profession. During the audit of the bank documentation he should have immediately notified the bank of the conflict with the Wilson file. He needed to be upfront with the bank and explain the Wilson’s were also a client of his for personal financial planning Page 5 nd have the file removed from the sample audit or bring in a third party to complete the audit on the Wilson documents. The loan officer should not have shared the personal information with Mr. Gable and Mr. Gable should have ended the conversation before it began. Sharing with the Wilson’s that discrepancies were noted between bank statements and loan documentation will allow the Wilsonà ¢â‚¬â„¢s to clear up the discrepancies at the bank in regards to their accounts. Page 6 References Brooks, L. J. , 2007. Business professional ethics for directors, executives accountants (4th ed). Mason, OH: Thomas South-Western.

Technique for Supravalvular Pulmonary Artery Stenosis

Technique for Supravalvular Pulmonary Artery Stenosis A novel beating-heart technique for supravalvular pulmonary artery stenosis INTRODUCTION: Pulmonary artery stenosis (PAS) may be congenital or acquired and presents itself as isolated or multiple lesions. Acquired PAS generally occurs following the surgical correction of congenital cardiac malformations such as anomalous origin of the left coronary artery arising from the pulmonary artery (ALCAPA) and tetralogy of Fallot (TOF). Treatment options for critical PAS include stent implantation, balloon angioplasty, and surgery. In this report, our objective is to present a new surgical technique without the need for cardiopulmonary bypass used for a patient undergoing surgery for ALCAPA who required re-operation on the first postoperative day due to supravalvular pulmonary stenosis. CASE REPORT: In a 8-year old boy, direct re-implantation of the left coronary artery into the aortic root was accomplished through median sternotomy under cardiopulmonary bypass. The general status of patient declined with accompanying signs and symptoms of right-sided heart failure within the first six postoperative hours. Also, liver enzyme levels were elevated and renal functions deteriorated. A biochemical profile revealed serum glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT) 832 mU/dl, serum glutamic-pyruvic transaminase (SGPT) 789 mU/dl, serum urea 65 mg/dl, and creatinine 2.1 mg/dl. Echocardiography showed severe right ventricular dysfunction and mild pulmonary insufficiency. As well as the supravalvular gradient was 80 mmHg, there was no transvalvular pressure gradient. Since supravalvular PAS was the suspected cause of the clinical instability of the patient, an urgent surgery was planned. SURGICAL TECHNIQUE A median sternotomy was used for the surgical procedure. Pump was not used to avoid the possible adverse consequences of cardiopulmonary bypass in this patient with a poor general status and impaired renal and liver functions. Firstly, an incision line on the stenotic supravalvular pulmonary artery segment was drawn. Then the dimensions of the graft to be placed were determined visually and the graft was prepared. The oval-shaped graft was sutured on the target stenotic pulmonary artery segment using 6/0 polypropylene sutures. During this procedure, special emphasis was placed on two issues: 1. Other than the proximal edge of the graft (the right ventricular side) all other edges were sutured using continuous sutures. However, no knots were tied and both ends of the suture were left free. 2. During the placing of the grafts, a space was created to form a convex structure in-between the anterior surface of the pulmonary artery. Then, a small linear incision on the pulmonary artery was made distally on the pulmonary artery using a scalpel inserted from the proximal opening of the graft. Simultaneous pressure on the incision site was exerted digitally to prevent bleeding. The incision was propagated longitudinally using a Metzenbaum scissor. Upon exposure of the pulmonary artery, the convex structure disappeared spontaneously by eliminating the distance between the graft and the anterior surface of the pulmonary artery. Soon after the incision was made in the distal direction on the pulmonary artery according to a pre-determined length, the sutures on the proximal surface of the graft were stretched as to fix the graft on the pulmonary artery. At the end of the procedure, while a moderate level of tension was maintained on the sutures manually, the proximal end of the graft was closed using continuous sutures. Thus, at the end of the procedure the desired pulmonary artery diameter was achieved. No hemodynamic instability was observed during the procedure. Intraoperative echocardiography showed no residual gradients on the pulmonary artery. The patient was extubated at postoperative 12th hour. A quick clinical improvement of right-sided heart failure was observed during the follow-up along with restoration of normal liver enzyme levels within 48 hours and normal renal functions within one week after surgery. The patient was discharged at postoperative 8th day. Follow-up examination at 1 year after surgery showed a good general status with weight gain. No gradient was detected at the pulmonary artery by echocardiography. DISCUSSION: PAS may be congenital or acquired. Acquired pulmonary artery stenosis is generally a complication of the surgical procedures performed for the repair of complex congenital cardiac malformations (1). For instance, in patients such as ours with ALCAPA, supravalvular PAS may develop following surgery (2). In certain circumstances, both congenital and acquired types of pulmonary artery stenosis may pose significant surgical challenges. Particularly, the presence of clinical instability may severely limit the therapeutic options in newborns. Treatment options for critical PAS include stent implantation, balloon angioplasty, and surgery. In recent years, despite significant advances in the technology of stent and balloon production, surgical repair remains an important therapeutic option. The success rates with balloon dilatation in these patients are limited (3). On the other hand, intravascular stents are associated with the formation of re-stenosis in the long term due to somatic growth (4). Thus, surgical repair stands out as an important alternative to both other approaches in pulmonary stenosis. We didn’t prefer catheterization because of early period after surgery and impaired kidney function. The current surgical methods for the reconstruction of the PAS may be associated with untoward consequences due to the need for cardiopulmonary bypass. Therefore, in order to avoid possible adverse effects of cardiopulmonary bypass, we developed a novel surgical technique to be used for the repair of supravalvular pulmonary artery stenosis without pump. The surgical technique utilized in this patient is simple and safe distinguishing itself from other techniques by negating the need for pump. Particularly, it seems suitable for selected, clinically unstable cases who may be adversely affected by cardiopulmonary bypass. In previously operated patients with supravalvular pulmonary artery stenosis, this technique may be safely applied without the increased risk of bleeding or thromboembolic events. However, larger patient populations are warranted to more firmly establish its safety. Nevertheless, we believe that this technique for the pulmonary artery reconstruction may provide significant increases in the diameter of the pulmonary artery in a beating heart with minimal morbidity and mortality. According to our knowledge, there have not been reported any off-pump technique for PAS in the English literature to date. In conclusion, this newly developed method of supravalvular PAS surgery is safe and long lasting. This surgical technique may be applied on patients not only who had an isolated supravalvular PAS but also who were previously operated, developed restenosis in early period and were under risk if pump was used without disrupting the hemodynamic stability.

Platos Dialogues As Educational Models Essay -- Philosophy Research P

Dialogue, Dialectic, and Maieutic: Plato's Dialogues As Educational Models ABSTRACT: Plato’s Socrates exemplies the progress of the dialectical method of inquiry. Such a method is capable of actualizing an interlocutor’s latent potential for philosophizing dialectically. The dianoetic practice of Plato’s Socrates is a mixture of dialectical assertions and questions arising out of his ethical concern for the interlocutor. The Dialogues act as educational models exhibiting how one inquires and learns as well as how one must teach in order that others learn to be participants in (or practitioners of) the dialectic. This is the maieutic art of Plato’s Socrates with which he draws his interlocutors into stating and reflecting upon the implications of their uncritically held opinions. We could say that the real subject-matter of many of the Dialogues is at least as much education in the dialectical process while still respecting the literary form of the Dialogues as exhibitive construction. The lack of philosophical closure that often characterizes many of the Dialogues lends additional credence to this position. The subject-matter of many of the dialogues is, therefore, reflexive: it is about itself in the sense that the tacit lesson (practicing the dialectic) will be remembered after its ostensible subject (some philosophical problem) has ceased to be debated. Dialectic is, then, renewable and replicable as an educational method, using "psychagogy"—an instrument of maieutic—to determine first each student’s individual needs for guiding him toward understanding. The Dialogues As Educational Models Plato's Dialogues are intellectual, noetic experiences; as dramatizations of communicative interactions, they bring into exhibition... ...ress, 1980. Grassi, Ernesto. Rhetoric As Philosophy. The Humanist Tradition. University Park and London: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1980. (Noted as RAP) Marà ­as, Julià ¡n. Philosophy As Dramatic Theory. tr. James Parsons. University Park and London: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1971. (Noted as PADT) Sagan, Eli. The Honey and the Hemlock. Democracy and Paranoia in Ancient Athens and Modern America. New York: Basic Books, 1991. Sedgewick, G.G. Of Irony, Especially in Drama. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1967. Tejera, V. Plato's Dialogues One By One. A Structural Interpretation. New York: Irvington Publishers, Inc., 1984. (Noted as PDOBO) —. Modes of Greek Thought. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1971. Walton, Craig and Anton, John, eds. Philosophy and the Civilizing Arts. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1974.

Alcohol Fetish Essay -- Alcohol

As humans, we all yearn to be free, yet we are trapped by expectations, responsibilities and standards placed upon us by the modern world. Alcohol creates freedom and vulnerability for individuals oppressed by the dynamics and speed of everyday life especially in very developed ‘high class’ nations. Alcohol particularly creates this freedom for individuals in disenfranchised populations, where expectations from a foreign â€Å"sophisticated† ideology overwhelm the people of the once free nations. And because alcohol creates a free and youthful state of mind, it becomes fetishized. In order for one to defetishize alcohol, and drinking to escape from reality, one must look at their reality and question what reality they are escaping in the first place. In the paper, I first examine the history of alcohol in different cultures and societies. I then talk about how the type of culture a person lives in, whether it is sophisticated or more ‘third world’, re flects one’s relationship with alcohol. Sex and vulnerability also plays an important role in the fetishizing of alcohol in most communities; I observe this next and how it relates to individual’s overall creation of freedom. Lastly, I look at how individuals are better able to have fun, at all ages, when drinking. All in all proving that drinking alcohol creates a state of freedom for people who lack freedom because of their realities. The history of alcohol, unlike many other commodities on the market dates back very far into history. Each and every part of the world seems to have their own personal relationships with the popular beverage. Brewing of alcohol dates back to the beginning of written civilization, and possibly before. Ancient Babylonians, as well as the Ancient Egyptians ... ... Brave Heart, M., Chase, J., Elkins, J., & Altschul, D. B. (2011). Historical Trauma Among Indigenous Peoples of the Americas: Concepts, Research, and Clinical Considerations. Journal Of Psychoactive Drugs, 43(4), 282-290. doi:10.1080/02791072.2011.628913 Hanson, David J. Preventing Alcohol Abuse: Alcohol, Culture and Control. Wesport, CT: Praeger, 1995 Mohindra, K. S., Narayana, D. D., Anushreedha, S. S., & Haddad, S. (2011). Alcohol use and its consequences in South India: Views from a marginalized tribal population. Drug & Alcohol Dependence, 117(1), 70-73. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.12.021 Yuan, N. P., Eaves, E. R., Koss, M. P., Polacca, M., Bletzer, K., & Goldman, D. (2010). â€Å"Alcohol is Something That Been With Us Like a Common Cold†: Community Perceptions of American Indian Drinking. Substance Use & Misuse, 45(12), 1909-1929. doi:10.3109/10826081003682115

Analysis of Willy Russell’s Blood Brothers :: Theatre Drama Blood Brothers Plays Essays

Analysis of Willy Russell’s Blood Brothers Tell me it’s not true Say it’s just a story These words echoed in my head as I entered the Phoenix Theatre. I had had past experience with â€Å"Blood Brothers† by singing the heartbreaking ballad â€Å"Tell Me It’s Not True† in a past show. Therefore I anticipated that the performance I was about to watch was going to be a roller coaster of emotions, with bitter consequences. I expected a first class show with strong, slick performances from the cast and fantastic musical numbers. This expectation of â€Å"Blood Brothers† was partly due to it being in the reputable West End of London and had been running at the Phoenix Theatre since 1991. This made me think that a musical that could still have large audiences coming to see it in the highly competitive London Theatre scene, must have something exceptional. I also has background knowledge about â€Å"Blood Brothers† from reading the script in parts in class. However, some parts of the play were still patchy to me, so I was looking forward to having the entire story acted out from start to finish. It was interesting for me as well because I was familiar with other plays Willy Russell had written. Having seen Shirley Valentine and read â€Å"A Grand Day Out† I enjoyed his of simple, uncluttered style of writing. â€Å"Blood Brothers† is set in Liverpool 1962. Its story stems from an impoverished single mother of six called Mrs Johnstone who, by finding that she is pregnant with twins, is persuaded to give up one of her unborn children to her employer, Mrs Lyons. The story unfolds by portraying how the two brothers grow up so differently without ever knowing they have a twin. â€Å"Of one womb born, on the self same day How one was kept and one given away?† The story deepens when the twins become friends when they are seven but both realise that they have the same birthday and therefore are both â€Å"nearly eight†. They become best friends and declare one another to be their â€Å"Blood Brother†. From then on the story follows their persistence to remain friends and the obstacles each come up against. Sadly though, their forbidden friendship finally leads to one another’s tragic death; never knowing the truth that they were brothers. Never knowing they shared one name Till the day they died I never really absorbed the absurdity of the storyline because the script was so subtle in its telling of the story, and the performance of the cast didn’t over dramatise the events unfolding. If they had, it would have made the story have an unwanted comical element as it

Facial Kinesics, Oculesics, and Kinesics Essay

1. Discuss how emotions are expressed through facial expressions. Emotion is one of the most controversial topics in psychology, a source of intense discussion and disagreement from the earliest philosophers and other thinkers to the present day. Most psychologists can probably agree on a description of emotion or what phenomena to include in a discussion of emotion. The list of these parts of emotion is called the components of emotion. These components are distinguished based on physiological or psychological factors and include emotion faces, emotion elicitors, and emotion neural processes. Neither emotion nor their expressions are concepts universally embraced by psychologists. The term expression implies the existence of something that is expressed. The behaviors referenced by expression are part of an organized emotional response, and thus, the term expression captures the behaviors’ role less adequately than a reference to it as an aspect of the emotion reaction. In addition, facial expressions have primarily a communicative function and convey something about intentions or internal state, and I find the connotation of the word expression useful. Facial expressions and emotions are directly linked to each other. Many times, we subconsciously exhibit looks and expressions on our faces that are directly linked to how we are feeling at the time. Though people regularly recognize many distinct emotions, for the most part, research studies have been limited to six basic categories and they are happiness, surprise, sadness, anger, fear, and disgust. The reason for this is grounded in the assumption that only these six categories are differentially represented by our cognitive and social systems. (Knapp, Hall & Horgan, 2014, p.261) 2. Discuss pupil dilation and constriction. Early research determined that pupil dilation and interest in the stimulus are linked. Researchers currently utilize video-based eye-tracking tools that measure where people are looking, how long they are looking at something, and how their pupils respond to what they are looking at and  doing. People’s pupils can dilate and constrict, and these eye movements signal their interest level, attitudes, memory, decision-making processes, as well as various disorders. When people are intrigued by or interested in something, they tend to look harder and focus deeper in on that particular thing. There has been so much more additional research on this topic, and many different results and ideas have been added to the causes and reasoning behind pupil dilation and constriction. Our pupils may dilate or constrict based on our attitudes. Pupils dilate for positive attitudes and constrict for negative ones. This can even include times when we receive compliments or praise for doing a goo d job. Our pupils dilate for excitement and things that feel good to us. Another study found that recognition and memory were also linked to the change in pupil size. If people saw or recognized something they have seen before, or something that brings back a fond memory, pupils tend to dilate. We link certain events to certain stimuli and research showed that this linkage created a change in eye size. Eyes may also dilate when we have reached a decision or how we are processing information. When we are in deep thought or going through the process of trying to make a difficult decision, our eyes may dilate or constrict depending on our emotions and feelings toward that particular decision or topic we are thinking over. Research shows that many different things can cause these variations in pupil size. It is hard to narrow it down to just a few things because there are so many and people react differently in every situation. Tightening muscles anywhere on the body, anticipation of a loud noise, drugs, eyelid closure, and mental effort all alter pupil size. While the visual cortex in the back of the brain assembles the images we see, a different, older part of our nervous system manages the continuous tuning of our pupil size, alongside other functions like heart rate and perspiration that operate mostly outside our conscious control. This autonomic nervous system dictates the movement of the iris, like the lens of a camera, to regulate the amount of light that enters the pupil. The iris is made of two types of muscle: in a brightly lit environment, a ring of sphincter muscles that encircle and constrict the pupil down to as little as a couple of millimeters across; in the dark, a set of dilator muscles laid out like bicycle spokes, which can expand the pupil up to 8 millimeters approximately the diameter of a chickpea. Cognitive and emotional events can also dictate pupil constriction and expansion, though such events occur on a smaller scale than the light reflex, causing changes generally less than half a millimeter. However, that is enough. By recording subjects’ eyes with infrared cameras and controlling for other factors that might affect pupil size, like brightness, color, and distance, scientists can use pupil movements as a proxy for other processes, like mental strain. (Knapp, Hall & Horgan, 2014, p.318-319) 3. Describe when we gaze more and when we gaze less. Every day we use non-verbal signals to communicate a wide range of emotions, feelings and desires. One of the most important of these signals is the gaze. I am sure that everyone has had the experience of being on a bus or a train and suddenly feeling quite uncomfortable because you feel that another person is staring at you, even though they may just be staring at a dot on the wall and you happen to be in the same direction. In our everyday interactions, we look at many people, yet we look at them in a specific way in order to avoid discomfort and disagreements. We are never really taught how to look at people, apart from a parent telling us to stop staring when we are very young, but we still manage to understand the way this process works. It may be because we use glances, looks and gazes so much in our routine communications that it has become second nature to us. There are a number of factors that influence the amount of time we spend looking at someone when we are engaged in conversation; the person who is listening gazes more than the person who is talking, we look more at people that we like and less at people that we do not and we gaze more when we are interested in the topic, than when we are bored. Gaze refers to an individual looking at another person. There are four main functions of gazing. Regulatory is when responses may be demanded or suppressed by looking. Monitoring is looking at the partner to indicate the conclusions of thought units and to check the partner’s attentiveness and reaction. Cognitive is looking away when having difficulty processing information or deciding what to say. Expressive is revealing the nature or degree of involvement and emotional arousal by looking. We gaze more when we are in deep conversations. In each of these functions, we gaze and look at the individual we are conversing with in various de grees of interest. Each of these has a different level of gazing. (Knapp, Hall & Horgan, 2014,  p.296-298) 4. How are the eyes used to determine deception? This question may require outside research. The eyes are the windows to the soul. The eyes are the most expressive area of a person’s entire body. A very important rule in the interpretation of non-verbal behavior, it is to look for breaks in eye contact. Breaks in eye contact, at the point of the answer, are considered deceptive. Breaks in eye contact indicating deception is generally accompanied by additional deceptive body behavior. A break in eye contact is when the interviewee is not, more or less, looking directly at the interviewer’s face and eyes, with the eyes open. Truthful people generally look at the interviewer when they are answering a question. Deceptive people will break eye contact at the instance of the answer. The process of detecting deception, by the use of breaks in eye contact, is used when the investigator is asking a series of questions, directed at the subject. In a question and answer session, the subject will generally maintain eye contact wi th the investigator, as the investigator is speaking. You should start with questions that are not relevant to the investigation at hand. Observe the person’s eye contact as you are speaking and they are answering. This will give you a norm for their behavior, what they normally do. Normally, a person will maintain eye contact during the question. You are looking for breaks in eye contact when the subject is answering the question. A truthful subject will maintain good eye contact while listening and will break eye contact to think or to gather thoughts and reestablish eye contact during the answer. For example, you ask a person where they were two nights ago at 10 pm. The subject will probably break eye contact while they are thinking and mentally gathering the information for the answer. This should not be considered a deceptive break in eye contact. The person is merely getting the information for the answer. In a truthful response, the person will regain eye contact and deliver the answer. The deceptive person will not maintain eye contact when they answer the question. They break eye contact, however briefl y, while answering the question. After the question is answered, the subject will resume eye contact. The deceptive break in eye contact occurs at the instance of the answer. These breaks may be subtle, looking away, blinking, rolling eyes, covering their eyes or diverting their attention to another task as they answer and coming back to eye contact after the answer. The break in eye contact is where the subject  is mentally running away from you. In some cultures and in some people, they will not make eye contact, constantly looking down or away from you. This process will not work until the person makes eye contact during the conversation. The techniques to gain their eye contact are not addressed in this article. Do not challenge the subject to look you in the eye. This creates false eye contact and obscures your ability to read the true breaks in eye contact. Another variation of breaking eye contact to gather and deliver information is where the subject is telling a story. For instance, a subject was assaulted and robbed. While telling the story, the person may not look at the investigator as they are presenting the story. In this instance, the person is replaying the incident in their head and narrating the story as they recall. During the story, the person may periodically make direct eye contact when a specific point is made. After the story has been delivered, the subject should regain eye contact, waiting for the investigator to respond. (Givens, 2013) 5. Discuss the different types of gestures. Speech-independent gestures depend upon culturally accepted interpretation. A wave or two fingers for a peace sign are examples of speech-independent gestures. Speech-independent gestures are nonverbal acts that have a direct verbal translation or dictionary definition, usually consisting of a word or two or a phrase. These gestures are the least dependent on speech for their meaning and most commonly occur as a single gesture. Speech independent gestures consist of nodding, shaking of head, using the middle finger, shrugging, hugs, or thumbs up. Speech-related gestures are used in parallel with verbal speech. This form of nonverbal communication is used to emphasize the message. Speech-related gestures are intended to provide supplemental information to a verbal message such as pointing to an object of discussion. Speech-related gestures are sometimes called illustrators, or co-speech gestures, are directly tied to or accompany speech. The meanings and functions of these gestures are revealed as we examine how they relate to the attendant spoken language. Speech-related gestures resemble the movements elicited by long-train stimulation of the primate motor cortex. Speech-related hand gestures have their evolutionary origins in functional hand movements of ancestral non-primate and primate species and  may be constrained by the neural substrate for those movements. (Knapp, Hall, Horgan, 2014, p. 201-215) 6. Discuss how people use kinesics to persuade others. The use of kinesics and in everyday life is the most prominent use of persuasion we use without even knowing. They are used unknowing because you may not know what they mean. This can cause cultural tension if you do something that may seem harmless to you but may be a great insult to another culture. Kinesics has many forms, which can be used by many people in the American culture to pursue people daily for various reasons. This use of persuasion is used today in everyday life. Kinesics is articulation of the body, or movement resulting from muscular and skeletal shift. This includes all actions, physical or physiological, automatic reflexes, posture, facial expressions, gestures, and other body movements. Kinesics may substitute for language, accompany it, or modify it. Kinesics may be verbal or informative and directive in nature, or they may be emotive or empathic movements. Posture is one of the components of kinesics. Posture is broken down into three basic positions, bent knee s, lying down, and standing. Artists and mimes have always been aware of the range of communication possible through body stance. However, there are some cultural differences in posture positions. Eye contact helps beggars get more money. Frequent but not prolonged eye contact leads to more persuasion. The lack of eye contact causes the person being spoken to not to trust the speaker. Open body poses are more persuasive. An audience that is standing is more likely to be persuaded than an audience sitting. Another use of kinesics would be proxemics and distance, being closer to a person can be more persuasive. In addition, dressing appropriately is persuasive. Everyone knows if dress well for an interview then you are persuading the interviewer that you are the person for the job. People that are more attractive are more persuasive. (Fisher, 2011) 7. Describe how cultural diversity affects kinesics and eye behaviors. Kinesics is body motions such as shrugs, foot tapping, drumming fingers, clicking pens, winking, facial expressions, and gestures. Nonverbal behavior or kinesics using observational skills or reading body language to understand a patient’s underlying feelings. Many people reveal more through their facial expressions part of kinesics than they may wish to convey. They  may sit alone and frown at what appears to be nothing at all. Others may exhibit a faint pleasant smile or offer a nearly vacant blank stare. Just by observations, you can begin to formulate opinions about others and react according to your impressions. Good kinesics give positive, self-confident, professional, nonverbal messages to people, being especially sensitive to gender or cultural differences. We as Americans may wish to be touched during difficult times or by close friends but generally stand 30 inches apart. Americans do shake hands. Young Americans do demonstrate affection publicly. Americans are taught to make eye contact. In terms of general kinesics, Americans use hand gestures to indicate when something is okay or give a thumbs up for a good job, and use head nodding to affirm a speaker’s message. African Americans most commonly exhibit behaviors typical of all Americans, but this group tends to touch more, especially around other African Americans. Further, as a group, they stand closer to each other and display more emotion through laughter and touching than is typical of Euro-Americans. Nonverbal communication skills serve various cultures well as you learn to observe and interpret the behavior of others. That which is non-neutral has some meaning. When nonverbal behavior contradicts verbal behavior, your attention must be focused there. Nonverbal interpretations also help you in establishing communication with those who cannot or will not talk. The nonverbal is often more revealing than the spoken word. The key elements of nonverbal language are kinesics, proxemics, haptics, oculesics, chronemics, olfactics, appearance and adornment, posture, locomotion, sound symbols, silence, and vocalics. You must be aware of what specific physical positions, such as encountering a patient with arms crossed who is staring at the floor, might mean. You must always check your perceptions rather than assuming the meaning of nonverbal behavior, especially when cultural differences may exist. Good observational skills are an important component of the nonverbal process. (O’neil, 2009) 8. Analyze your nonverbal communication using the material in the texts. Nonverbal communication is a broad term used to describe any method of transferring information without words. My nonverbal communication is intentional, and based on many things. Some of my nonverbal communication includes my body language, facial cues, attire, personal grooming, and hand gestures. Many of the facial expressions I use for example are relatively  universal. Most of the time I am communicating fear, joy, or anger when I use nonverbal communication. Other times I use nonverbal cues like bowing, shaking hands, or nodding my head. I use body language as nonverbal communication very often. For example, you may see me turning towards a person when seated and speaking to them is a nonverbal cue by nodding my head. When I tilt my head slightly is a form of nonverbal communication to show curiosity or express that I am listening closely. I may tend to look away to show a lack of attention. Sometime I may position myself far away from whomever I am talking to can show disinterest, disgust, or fear of the person. When I position myself slightly closer that means I am showing interest. When I position myself extremely close that means I am trying to communicate either aggression or a very high level of interest. My attire is another form of nonverbal communication. My clothing can communicate how I am feeling. It also often acts as a marker for social class. Designer clothing, custom tailored suits or shoes denotes wealth. It can even act as a nonverbal cue for religion or politics as well. My gestures also act as a form of nonverbal communication. I use wide range of hand gestures on a daily basis, such as a wave goodbye, thumbs up to demonstrate everything is okay, a wink to show that something is being left unsaid, or my personal favorite, elbowing someone to let them know that something is wrong, or shrugging my shoulders when I am unsure. References Fisher, J. (2001). Knowing body language saves embarrassment and improves understanding and clarity. Retrieved from http://www.livingbetter.org/livingbetter/articles/bodylanguage.htm Givens, J. (2013). Deception Cue. Retrieved from http://center-for-nonverbal-studies.org/deceive.htm Knapp, M. L., Hall, J. A., & Horgan, T. G. (2014) Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction. Boston, MA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. O’neil, D. (2009). Hidden Aspects of Communication. Retrieved from http://anthro.palomar.edu/language/language_6.htm Pfeuffer, K., Vidal, M., Turner, J., Bulling, A., & Gellersen, H. (2013). Pursuit Calibration: Making Gaze Calibration Less Tedious and More Flexible. Retrieved from http://www.d2.mpi-inf.mpg.de/content/pursuit-calibration-making-gaze-calibration-less-tedious-and-more-flexible